Both NOR and NAND Flash memory were invented by Dr. Fujio Masuoka from Toshiba in 1984.The name ‘Flash’ was suggested because the erasure process of the memory contents resembles a flash of a camera, and it’s name was coined to express how much faster it could be erased “in a flash”. Dr. Masuoka presented the invention at the International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM) held in San Jose, California in 1984 and Intel recognizes the potentiality of the invention and introduced the first commercial NOR type flash chip in 1988, with long erase and write times.

Flash memory is a form of non-volatile memory that can be electrically erased and rewrite, which means that it does not need power to maintain the data stored in the chip. In addition, flash memory offers fast read access times and better shock resistance than hard disks. These characteristics explain the popularity of flash memory for applications such as storage on battery-powered devices.

Flash memory is advance from of EEPROM (Electrically-Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) that allows multiple memory locations to be erased or written in one programming operation. Unlike an EPROM (Electrically Programmable Read-Only Memory) an EEPROM can be programmed and erased multiple times electrically. Normal EEPROM only allows one location at a time to be erased or written, meaning that flash can operate at higher effective speeds when the systems using; it reads and writes to different locations at the same time.

Referring to the type of logic gate used in each storage cell, Flash memory is built in two varieties and named as, NOR flash and NAND flash. Flash memory stores one bit of information in an array of transistors, called “cells”, however recent flash memory devices referred as multi-level cell devices, can store more than 1 bit per cell depending on amount of electrons placed on the Floating Gate of a cell. NOR flash cell looks similar to semiconductor device like transistors, but it has two gates.

First one is the control gate (CG) and the second one is a floating gate (FG) that is shield or insulated all around by an oxide layer. Because the FG is secluded by its shield oxide layer, electrons placed on it get trapped and data is stored within. On the other hand NAND Flash uses tunnel injection for writing and tunnel release for erasing.

NOR flash that was developed by Intel in 1988 with unique feature of long erase and write times and its endurance of erase cycles ranges from 10,000 to 100,000 makes it suitable for storage of program code that needs to be infrequently updated, like in digital camera and PDAs. Though, later cards demand moved towards the cheaper NAND flash; NOR-based flash is hitherto the source of all the removable media.

Followed in 1989 Samsung and Toshiba form NAND flash with higher density, lower cost per bit then NOR Flash with faster erase and write times, but it only allows sequence data access, not random like NOR Flash, which makes NAND Flash suitable for mass storage device such as memory cards. SmartMedia was first NAND-based removable media and numerous others are behind like MMC, Secure Digital, xD-Picture Cards and Memory Stick. Flash memory is frequently used to hold control code such as the basic input/output system (BIOS) in a computer. When BIOS needs to be changed (rewritten), the flash memory can be written to in block rather than byte sizes, making it simple to update.

On the other hand, flash memory is not practical to random access memory (RAM) as RAM needs to be addressable at the byte (not the block) level. Thus, it is used more as a hard drive than as a RAM. Because of this particular uniqueness, it is utilized with specifically-designed file systems which extend writes over the media and deal with the long erase times of NOR flash blocks. JFFS was the first file systems, outdated by JFFS2. Then YAFFS was released in 2003, dealing specifically with NAND flash, and JFFS2 was updated to support NAND flash too. Still, in practice most follows old FAT file system for compatibility purposes.

Although it can be read or write a byte at a time in a random access fashion, limitation of flash memory is, it must be erased a “block” at a time. Starting with a freshly erased block, any byte within that block can be programmed. However, once a byte has been programmed, it cannot be changed again until the entire block is erased. In other words, flash memory (specifically NOR flash) offers random-access read and programming operations, but cannot offer random-access rewrite or erase operations.

This effect is partially offset by some chip firmware or file system drivers by counting the writes and dynamically remapping the blocks in order to spread the write operations between the sectors, or by write verification and remapping to spare sectors in case of write failure.

Due to wear and tear on the insulating oxide layer around the charge storage mechanism, all types of flash memory erode after a certain number of erase functions ranging from 100,000 to 1,000,000, but it can be read an unlimited number of times. Flash Card is easily rewritable memory and overwrites without warning with a high probability of data being overwritten and hence lost.

In spite of all these clear advantages, worse may occur due to system failure, battery failure, accidental erasure, re-format, power surges, faulty electronics and corruption caused by hardware breakdown or software malfunctions; as a result your data could be lost and damaged.

Flash Memory Data Recovery is the process of restoring data from primary storage media when it cannot be accessed normally. Flash memory data recovery is a flash memory file recovery service that restores all corrupted and deleted photographs even if a memory card was re-formatted. This can be due to physical damage or logical damage to the storage device. Data even from damage flash memory can be recovered, and more than 90% of lost data can be restored.

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There are many problems that can occur with a hard disc and to recover your data you will need some type of hard disc recovery. Whether you have simply deleted files that you want to recover or done something much worse there are options for recovery your information. You need to remember that when you erase a file it is not actually deleted.

Your hard disc does not actually delete a file when you erase it. What occurs is that the space where that file was has now been labeled as free. So when you save a new file eventually your computer will write over this spot. It is only then that the file will be completely deleted.

There are plenty of software that can recover your files whether you have deleted them or a virus has made them inaccessible. Hard disc recovery reconstructs those deleted files. Even if you have a hardware issue you can still get that data from your hard disc.

However opening your hard drive is an issue. Most times if you have a mechanical problem than it can cost a lot of money to recover that information. You can damage your hard drive if you open it yourself.

A professional will open the hard drive in the right environment so that the disc is not further damaged. They will then transfer the data to a stable disc.

However the best way to have hard disc recovery is to make a back up of all your files. You need to have at least two different backups. Most individuals will have a hard disc back up an external drive or other source and have a back up on your computer. You also can prevent issues such as defragmenting your drive and having correct security and virus protection.

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How to Speed Read, Improve Memory and Concentration. Download Free Course of Zox Pro Training System by Richard Welch & Shannon Panzo and Review Zox Pro Training System

Well, if you would like to know how to speed read and improve your memory and concentration…then this is your final destination.

An average person uses only about 2% of his/her brain. However Richard Welch (also known as the father of mental photography/subliminal photography) and Shannon Panzo of ZOX have devoted 33 years of research into activating the dormant part of the brain – the remaining 98% and created subliminal dynamics called Zox ProTraining System.

The goal of the Zox Training System is to help people unleash the full potential of their brain power. By using this scientifically proven, step by step process, you’ll learn how to train your brain and thus developing razor sharp memory (with almost 100% retention), start to speed read at over 25,000 words per minute (quite literally taking mental photographs of the pages in a book), and hugely improve your memory,self confidence,concentration and focus. The longer you’re using the Zox system the more developed your brain becomes, and so you’ll start to get amazed at yourself soon when you begin discovering the new abilities that were just waiting to be tapped.

The Benefits of ZOX Training

1.  lmprove your ability to concentrate 

2.  Increase your awareness and perception

3.  Recognize and trust your intuition and apply it in your daily life

4.  Learn to relax and reduce stress

5.  Require less sleep and get more productivity from sleeping time

6.  Become better organized

7.  Make phenomenal changes in your life quickly and efficiently

8.  Learn new methods of creative problem solving

9.  Increase your learning speed dramatically

10.  lmprove your memory

11.  And become happier

The true fathers behind the Zox Training System are Shannon Panzo and Richard Welch. They have taken years to develop the system to its current form. Recently, the effectiveness of the Zox Training System was confirmed by numerous self funded University studies.

Throughout Zox Training, you will learn several techniques that will help you open the full potential and capability of your brain. They are:

• Albert Einstein’s “Distraction Index”
• The Eye Chart Drill
• Relaxation Techniques
• Creative  Problem Solving (Personal Programming)
• The Mental Photography Technique
• Triggering Recall of Mentally Photographed Information.

So if you want to seriously maximize your brain power potential, with as little effort as possible sparing just ten minutes a day, then download the free Zox training module by Richard Welch and Shannon Panzo and learn how to improve your memory and concentration.

Visit Zox Pro Training System by Richard Welch & Shannon Panzo at http://www.zoxtraining.cz.cc

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Next generation home video format wars always end up confusing the consumer to start off, and it can take several years before one format gains dominance over the other. This was the case with the VHS versus Betamax format war, and thankfully the various companies quickly came together to develop the DVD, or digital video/versatile disc, so that became dominant with no competition. Unfortunately, various companies have banded together into two different camps, and now a new format war has been created where consumers are asked if they want HD or Blue ray, and many choose neither for now.

Making a Wise Investment

Through 2006 and 2007, people would have to choose to go with either HD or Blue ray on a relative whim as both offered about the same amount of movies from major movie studios. Near the start of 2008 though, Warner Bros. decided to go Blue ray exclusive, resulting in a majority of movies being released on Blue ray over HD-DVD, helping consumers to choose HD or Blue ray. While many people could argue the pros and cons of both formats, having two competing formats only ended up hurting everyone as companies released movies that nobody bought and consumers risked making a high definition movie player purchase only to find out that months later, no more movies would be released for it. By making most of the movies be released on a single format, movie studios help to ensure that consumers can choose HD or Blue ray without wasting their money.

HD-DVD players might be a little bit cheaper, but Blue ray discs offer superior data capacity, resulting in greater longevity as studios put more content onto discs for consumers to enjoy. However, by making consumers choose HD or Blue ray, studios allowed another format to gain traction. Downloadable videos have gained popularity as they work on all computers with a high speed Internet connection, which is becoming the dominant form of connection in all countries around the world. Many people prefer to actually be able to hold their purchase in their hands (as is the case with DVD’s or Blue ray discs), but by buying a next gen video format, they might have ended up wasting their hard earned money, so they preferred to download movies to their hard drive instead of risking wasting a thousand dollars or more.

Blue ray is expected to gain even more traction in 2008, helping consumers to easily choose HD or Blue ray. As prices come down and the selection of movies grows, then more people will upgrade to Blue ray over their old DVD player. With more special features and high definition video and audio, this format is the clear choice for the next generation home theater experience.

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Hard Disc Drive Fundamentals
By: Muthu Senthil Kumar (mskumar@tataelxsi.co.in / mskumar86@myway.com)

Abstract:

This article describes the main technical fundamentals of Hard Disc Drive and its operation. I focus my attraction on the particular perspective of describing Physical and Logical view of HDD, Reading and Writing in the HDD, How does data get stored in that and touched some information about HDD interfaces. This article also brings out the technology wise company working on this hard disc drives and this related technology.

Starting of HDD:

Hard disc drive, it is the magnetic device used to store soft copy of data in the form of 0’s and 1’s. Specific drivers are used to retrieve back the data in a specified format. Magnetic hard disks are used from 1956 onwards. On that day, the size of the hard disks is very huge for a small amount of storage and it also takes more time to store and retrieve. But today we are using very compact, high capacity, high latency hard disks for our systems.

Physical representation of HDD:

The user data / information are stored on a disc’s surface media. The media is a specially coated surface. Each media surface is divided into tracks and sectors. These sectors are often called “blocks”. Tracks are often referred to as cylinders. The Track, Sector separations of the hard disk are shown below. The Cylinder, Head, Sector (CHS) gives a physical location.

Logical representation of HDD:

Hard disks use circular hard platters to store data on. Each platter has two surfaces. Both sides of the media are used to store information. If each surface had 4 tracks and 4 sectors means there would be 32 sectors, or blocks. Each surface requires a “head” to read/write the information. Surfaces are often referred to as the “head”. A cylinder is the area that a head can write to or read from without being positioned to another track.

Take a hard disk has two surfaces/head; four sectors/blocks then the logical representation of that disk will be like this figure 3. In that figure, the two heads of that disk represented as 0 and 1. The four cylinders/tracks and sectors are represented by 0 to 3. So for, each surface has 16 logical sectors/blocks that is named as Logical block Addressing (LBA).

The Host and the file system using this LBA only for HDD operation like reading, writing the data, searching and seek etc., But for heads and media, the hard disk driver circuits convert the LBA to CHS (Cylinder, Head, Sector).

Reading and Writing in HDD:

Hard Disk Drive is a digital data storage device that reads and writes data via magnetization changes of a magnetic storage disk. This includes one or more randomly accessible rotatable storage media, or disks. In a magnetic disk drive, the data is encoded as bits of information using magnetic field reversals grouped in tracks on the magnetic hard surface of rotating disks. It also includes a transducer supported by a hydrodynamic bearing which flies above each magnetic disk. The transducer head supported by an actuator arm is used to read data from or write data to the disks. Hard disk drives are an indispensable component in most modern computing/data handling systems.

Hard disk drives are commonly utilized to store relatively large amounts of data in today’s computer systems like desk. If the capacity of the disk is more, the computer can store and access more data. In a computer, a hard disk drive is connected to the central processing unit (CPU) by means of the system bus. Computer architectures have a motherboard which includes a central processing unit and the system bus to which various peripherals, including a hard disk drive, are connected.

In a hard disk drive, data signals are read from and written to a rotating disk by a head, which is moved substantially with respect to the disk. The head assembly facilitates reading and writing of information on a surface of a rotating magnetic disk. The interconnect assembly includes a plurality of transmission elements, such as wires or traces, for transmitting data to and from the head assembly. The suspension assembly positions the head assembly at a generally constant distance away from the moving surface of the rotating disk. When the electric power is turned off to end the use of a computer, a driving voltage to a spindle motor also stops so that the speed of the hard disk rotated by the spindle motor gradually decreases. At this point, the magnetic head in the state of flying above the hard disk by the flow of air descends onto the surface of the hard disk.

The servo control system generally performs two distinct functions:
• Seek control
• Track following

The seek control function comprises controllably moving the actuator arm such that the transducer head is moved from an initial position to a target track position. The read/write head is typically a part of or affixed to a larger body that flies over the disk and is typically referred to as a slider. The slider has a lower surface referred to as the air-bearing surface. The air-bearing surface typically comprises one or more rails which generally generate a positive air pressure

The host sends the READ command to the hard disk, it gets transferred from logical to physical, then hard disk drive send back the specified block data to read. At the time of writing in the memory, the host sends the WRITE command to the HDD. After receiving the acknowledgement, the data is sent through the bus to write in the specified block.

HDD Interface:

A shared boundary between two, or more, functional units, defined by specific attributes, such as functional characteristics (Phases, states, protocol), common physical interconnection characteristics (cable, plugs), and signal characteristics (Polarity, voltage range, timing). This is called Interface. There are two main ways to interface the HDD with the host. They are,

ATA (Advanced Technology Attachment)

PATA (Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment)

SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment)
SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)

ATA (PATA):
ATA is a common interface used in many personal computers before the emergence of SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment). The initial version of ATA is a Parallel one. So after emergence of SATA, it is usually called as PATA (Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment). It is the least expensive of the interfaces used in the system in older days. PATA can support data transfer up to 133 MB/s. Nowadays SATA replaces this PATA in all areas. But the recent version UDMA133 is used in some subsystems depends upon the customer requirement.

SATA:
Serial Advanced Technology Attachment is commonly known as SATA. It is the very common hard disk interface used in all personal systems. One SATA port permits one device to connect to it. The main disadvantage of this is, it does not support the older systems without the use of additional components

SCSI:
It is abbreviated like Small Computer System Interface. SCSI is commonly used in servers, and more in industrial applications than home uses. It is the famous storage subsystem component used in all medium and small level computer interfaces. A mechanism called ‘Cable Sharing’ used here. It can support the data transfer rate up to 320 MB/s.

HDD – Enterprise Information:

In the Enterprise level, the companies are differentiated the hard disks using their spindle revolution per minute (RPM) like 4,200 RPM HDDs, 5,400 RPM HDDs, 7,200 RPM HDDs, 10,000 RPM HDDs, 15,000 RPM HDDs. These are all the main manufactures and companies have working with Hard Disk Drives and Marketing.

Audavi,Dane-Elec Memory, Dataslide, DTS, Dynamic Network Factory, EDGE Tech, Excelstor Technology, EZQuest Fantom Drives, Formation, Freecom Technologies, Fujitsu, Hitachi, Imation, I/OMagic, Iomega,LaCie, Maxell, Miltope,NEC, Olixir Technologies, PNY Technologies, ProStor Systems, Quantum, Samsung Electronics, SDK,Seagate, Shining Technology, Sony, SOYO, Toshiba,Verbatim, Western Digital

Hard Drive Failures:

Hard drive crashes are one of the most frustrating experiences with a computer. The inability to read data from the hard drive can render a computer useless. Even if the OS can run, the data may be inaccessible or damaged. The only way to recover from such a failure is to typically restore data from a backup onto a new drive with all the software installed from scratch. If no backup is available, then the data is either lost or will cost a lot for recovery services to retrieve.
Common drive failures

The most common failure for a hard drive is something called a head crash. A head crash is any instance where the drive head manages to touch a platter. When this happens, the magnetic media will be etched off of the platter by the head and render both the data and the drive head inoperable. There is no clean recovery from such a failure.

Another common failure comes from imperfections on the magnetic media. Any time that a sector on the disk fails to properly hold the magnetic alignment will cause data to be inaccessible.

Mobile systems tended to be prone to platters that shattered. This was due to the fact that most hard drive platters are made of glass and was susceptible to shock.

MTBF:

In order for consumers to get a good idea of the lifespan of a hard drive; a drive was rated by MTBF. This term stands for Mean Time Between Failure and is used to represent the length of time that 50 percent of drives would fail before and 50 percent would fail after. It is used to give an idea to a buyer as to the average amount of time the device will function for. The “Mean Time Between Failures” (MTBF) for hard disc drives had been going up fairly steadily from around 200,000 hours in the 1990’s to nearly 1,200,000 hours today.

Recovery Software:

At the time of hard drive failures, user wants to recover all data from that failure hard disk. Various companies provide the recovery software for hard disk data recovery. Some of them would be free too.

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Is it really possible to recover hard disc files after they’ve been deleted and long gone? Where does the data go? If some files were accidentally deleted, and it was only found out about after the recycle bin has already been emptied, then it’s too late to do anything, right? Maybe it isn’t… but if your computer caught a virus and you had to completely reformat your hard disk and reinstall Windows, starting all over again, well then you’d most certainly be up the creek without a paddle, right? Actually, not so – allow me to explain…

You see, it’s always possible to recover hard disk files, pretty much no matter what. The fact is, when you delete something, whether accidentally or not, it’s still hiding out somewhere within your computer. Think of it this way; if there’s a criminal committing illegal computer activity, and he thinks the authorities might soon be after him, he’ll go ahead and completely purge his hard drive – reformatting absolutely everything, a complete data dump – and then reinstalls his operating system and starts again from square one, he thinks he’s covered his tracks… but the feds always end up finding loads of evidence against him – we’ve all heard of such an instance before, right?

This is because the files still exist somewhere in the computer, even if you’ve thought you had utterly sucked absolutely everything out of your hard drive – therefore, with the right software tools, it is still possible to recover hard disc files, plain and simple. The best data retrieval software programs can save the day even when the absolute worst thing happens.

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Forget the DVDs, otherwise you may find yourself far from getting the highest mode of entertainment. Of course, we were right until recently when we used to think that nothing can beat our DVDs as far as the best entertainment appliance is concerned.

Of course the sound and picture quality of a DVD was free from any direct visible challenge. But as we see that nothing is immobile in the world of technology, a new miracle happened in digital video players technology. The inventors called it Blue-Ray.

These Blue-Rays are well set to replace the DVDs as the most prominent source of video watching. To bring the DVDs to the threshold of extinction, not only its advanced mechanism and much improved storage capacity will play a significant role, but the increasing popularity of HDTVs too is a second reason.

The 1080p resolution of an HDTV, compared to 480p resolution of a DVD, can be exploited to its maximum only by a Blue-Ray player.

Apart from its picture quality, a Blue-Ray player stores more data than a DVD. A DVD can store no more than 10 GB while a Blue-Ray disc can handsomely store a thumping 45-50 GB.

Such is the impact of its arrival that even the movie makers are not left ignorant of the importance of Blue-rays. They are leaving no stone unturned while making a movie. They are more Blue-ray focused.

They are ensuring there best to come up with the most beautiful pictures, in terms of varying colors and their shades, to make watching movies on Blue-rays a magical experience. Thus you have to opt for a Blue-ray player as all the frames of new movies are inclined towards blue-rays.

Also the arrival of HDTV has made the blue-ray a must have. You will no longer find watching videos on HDTVs using a DVD player an interesting job. The difference between resolutions mars the effect. So a blue-ray player enjoys the most befitting compatibility with an HDTV.

Also you are not required to be worried about your huge DVD collection as a Blue-Ray player is capable to run your DVDs too. Thus you are free from the responsibility of getting all your DVDs translated to Blue-ray version.

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Released on Jan 9-2007

Every new day begins with the news of any new and extraordinary invention in the computer world. That is the reason that computer technology is rising by leaps and bounds with its rich featured devices and advance technology media’s.

Xmultiple technologies start their year 2007 with their new and out bursting SQ Flash Memory Card turns the existing Flash memory cards just no more. SQ Flash memory card comes up with loaded features comparable to the existing ones. This SQ card is a mini memory card –small in size, large in performance, great in read & writes operation- so it is the optimum storage medium for the current time.

Remarkable Features:

The Xmultiple technologies SQ Flash Memory Card is very different from other flash cards in many aspects which raising it to high praise.

? Insertion of the SQ card can be done from any side

? Life time of the SQ Flash Memory card extended to four times than the previous versions.

? Compatible to the number of operating systems includes

o Windows 98SE

o Windows ME

o Windows 2000

o Mac OD9.X

o Mac 10.X

o Windows Vista

? 1GB SQ Flash Memory Card

o Reading speed increases to 24 MB

o Writing speed increases to 12 MB

? 2GB SQ Flash Memory Card

o Transfer speed increase to 60MBz

o Reading speed increases to 32.4 MB

o Writing speed increases to 21.5 MB

The reading and writing speed of existing Flash Memory Cards is 2.8 MB and 3.2 MB. A great difference is seen in the new emerged technology, it truly revolutionized Flash accessibility. The Xmultiple SQ Flash Memory Cars are available in 1GB, 2GB and 4 GB capacity; designed keeping in mind the requirements of the user.

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Many people panic when the hard disc on their laptop or desktop computer fails to operate or is inaccessible; or when they accidently delete important documents, pictures or folders. This is a relatively common problem and there’s usually no need to panic as data recovery is quite possible, as long as a data recovery technician is consulted and the proper procedures are followed.

Initially, one should identify the source of the problem or the cause of the data-loss, which could include mechanical hard drive failures, deleted files, overwrites, virus attacks, software corruptions; to name but a few circumstances. A professional data recovery expert should be contacted and consulted to determine the precise cause of data-loss and the appropriate line of action. The safest first step to take is to refrain from saving anything to the disc, to stop using the computer and to ensure that it is shut down and not accessed until professional service is attained. If an amateur access is attempted then the hard drive recovery process could become more complicated as the original information intended for recovery might be overwritten and the chance of a successful recovery becomes increasingly slim. By all means one should not try to reboot, resave, restore, format or create a new file in regards to any aspect within the computer as the situation of data loss is extremely sensitive, and requires the exclusive attention of a data-loss professional technician.  

That being said, a professional data recovery expert can easily, quickly and efficiently recover all data that was lost due to any reason, ranging from power shortages to viral disc damages. So basically, as serious as the situation may seem at first, there really is no need to panic as the data perceived to be lost is usually not lost at all, and can be quite easily retrieved by a data recovery technician.

Hard disc recovery has become such a common demand that professional services are widely available throughout the UK that provide various offers, promotions and service support. Hard drive recovery in Leicester includes the recovery of data from all pc media, from all forms, types, makes, and sizes of hard drives and memory sticks, whilst also treating disc failures due to various causes, from corrupted files to operating system problems.

Data recovery services in Leicester have a wide client-base, as most cater to the general public in addition to small businesses and domestic customers, and are thus quite reliable and efficient. Prices differ according to the nature of the data/disc problem, how complicated it is, the time taken for system recovery, the type of the drive, and so forth. Most companies provide a specific quote according to the individual situation.

Specialized companies in data recovery or hard disc/drive recovery in Leicester usually further specify the sub-locations in which they provide their services, their expert or unique specialization and methods in the various forms of data recovery, and the hard disc drive manufacturers which they can work with.

Hard disc recovery in Leicester is further available through data recovery software solutions and companies that specialize in data recovery backups in particular. In general, all hard drive or data recovery services in Leicester typically provide expert quality control after the data recovery is complete ensuring that the system is in optimum operation, whilst providing a backup for all files to be re-installed as needed.       

There are numerous reputable specialized hard drive recovery providers in Leicester, including companies such as Datasafe, MjM Data Recovery, MVI Data Recovery and 1CT Data Recovery Services. 

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EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. EEPROM is a type of non volatile memory which is used in computers or electronic devices to maintain the data when power is turned off but in case SRAM or DRAM information may be lost when power is switched off. To store the larger amount of data, a special type of EEPROM is used known as flash memory which is more economical in comparison to EEPROM devices.

History :-

In1983, George Perlegos developed the Intel 2816 at Intel, which was based on earlier technology EEPROM, but now we are using a thin gate oxide layer because the chip could erase its own bits without an ultra violet source. George Perlegos and others left to form Seeq Technology, which used on charge pumps devices to supply the high voltages which is necessary for EEPROMs.

Types of EEPROM :-

There are two types of EEPROM

1. Parallel Bus 2. Serial Bus

Parallel Bus :-

Parallel EEPROM devices typically have an address bus wide enough to cover the complete memory and 8-bit data bus. Most devices have chip select (CS) and write protect pins (WR). Some Microcontroller have integrated parallel EEPROM.

Operation of a parallel EEPROM is simple and fast in comparison to serial EEPROM, but these devices are larger due to the higher number of pins (28 pins or more) and have been decreasing in popularity in favor of serial EEPROM or Flash.

Parallel EEPROMs are used in applications such as POS terminals, industrial controllers, LAN adapters, telecommunication switches, cellular phones and modems.

Serial Bus :-

Serial EEPROM works in three modes : OP-Code Phase, Data bus and Address Phase.The OP-Code is usually the first 8-bits input to the serial input pin of the EEPROM device followed by 8 to 24 bits of addressing depending on the depth of the device, then data to be read or written.

Serial EEPROM products are used in many applications to store user reconfigurable data. Common applications are disk drives, modems, cellular phones, VCRs, CD players, hearing aids, PCMCIA cards, cordless phones, laser printers, computers and pagers.

Comparison with EPROM and EEPROM/Flash :-

EPROMs can not be erased electrically, and are programmed through hot carrier injection onto the floating gate. Erase is possible with the help of an Ultra Violet light source, although in practice many EPROMs are encapsulated in plastic that is opaque to Ultra Violet light, and are “one-time programmable”.

EEPROM can be programmed and erased electrically using field emission generally known in the industry as “Fowler-Nordheim tunneling”.

Mostly NOR Flash memory is a hybrid style-programming is through hot carrier injection and erase with the help of Fowler-Nordheim tunneling.

Engineering Services

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